Driving Innovation: Patent Pools in India’s EV Sector – A Comparative Study with Policy Insights

This article has been written under the supervision of Mr Anand Barnabas during the course of an internship at De Penning & De Penning—the oldest IP Law Firm in India.

 

Introduction:

Faced with growing climate concerns, India stands at a pivotal moment in its transition to electric vehicles (EVs), a sector that is not only vital for reducing greenhouse gas emissions but also for establishing the nation as a global leader in clean energy technology. Although the government has significantly aided in the innovation landscape, the Indian EV ecosystem faces substantial challenges within the patenting landscape. As evidenced in the past decade, EV’s are a disrupter to the current automotive dependence on fossil fuels. However, it has failed to solve one fundamental problem area—charging. The lack of standardisation in charging technology—both in vehicle ports and public charging facilities—has led to inefficiencies, disparities, and widespread consumer hesitation. In lieu of this, standardization is crucial for creating a seamless and interoperable EV ecosystem across brands. For example, a similar measure in recent years is the European Union’s mandate for Type-C ports across all mobile devices.

The urgency for such measures is underscored by India’s rapidly growing patent landscape in the e-mobility segment. According to Arctic Invent’s Dashboard, India has accounted over 14,100 patent filings in this domain, with EV batteries accounting for 5,765 publications, followed by significant activity in battery swapping (774 publications), charging stations (467 publications), and wireless charging (345 publications).[1] However, when compared to China’s astounding 60,000 EV-related patents, it becomes evident that India’s innovation potential remains underutilised.

Patent pooling emerges as a compelling solution to address this growing disparity.[2] In a patent pool, patent rights are aggregated amongst multiple patent holders where they are made available to member and non-member licensees.[3] Consequently, the pool allocates a portion of the licensing fees it collects to each member in proportion to each patent’s value.

Historically, this mechanism has played a transformational role in fostering innovation and standardising technologies within emerging industries. A notable example is the expedition of aircraft production during World War I through the use of patent pooling. The Manufacturers Aircraft Association (MAA) overcame crucial obstacles and circumvented patent thickets by incorporating a patent pool. Within the EV sector, VIA-LA’s MPEG LA EV Charging Patent Pool[4] has demonstrated how shared intellectual property can facilitate the global rollout of standardised EV infrastructure.[5]

Adopting a patent pooling framework could significantly unleash rate of innovation by encouraging collaboration among industry stakeholders. Furthermore, it would address growing concerns surrounding fragmentation in EV technologies, and uniformise charging for all EV consumers regardless of the brand of vehicle they prefer. This article examines the operational framework of patent pools, their legal and regulatory implications in the Indian context, and global best practices to propose a cohesive strategy for fostering innovation in India’s EV sector through a comparative study.

Operation of a Patent Pool:

1. Formation and Contribution of a Patent Pool

The formation of a patent pool is an inherently collaborative process, requiring active participation from patent holders, industry stakeholders, and standard-setting organizations.[6] The process begins with identifying the need for a pool in a specific technological domain—in this case, EV charging infrastructure.[7] Patent holders then agree on the scope of the pool, licensing terms, and mechanisms for revenue sharing.[8]

In the EV sector, for instance, a patent pool could encompass technologies related to charging infrastructure, battery management systems, and wireless charging.[9] Participating entities contribute patents deemed essential to the pool’s goals, often following a rigorous vetting process to ensure that the patents are complementary and not redundant.[10] Industry facilitation in this regard could be catalysed by government departments.[11]

2. Administration and Licensing

Once established, a patent pool is typically managed by a central licensing authority or a single administrator.[12] This body oversees the pool’s operations, including the negotiation and issuance of licenses to third parties. In light of the aim to create a repository of critical innovations, the terms of licensing are structured to ensure fair, reasonable, and non-discriminatory (FRAND) access to the pooled patents.[13]

The licensing process streamlines access for manufacturers and technology developers.[14] Instead of negotiating individual agreements with multiple patent holders, licensees can obtain the rights to use multiple patented technologies through a single agreement. This substantially reduces transaction costs and administrative burdens, especially for small and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) and startups.

In India, such an arrangement would democratise access to critical technologies, enabling MSMEs in regions like Tamil Nadu’s emerging auto clusters to compete on a level playing field with larger corporations.[15] Additionally, transparent licensing terms could further attract foreign investment by reducing legal uncertainties in India’s IP ecosystem.[16]

3. Legal Implications and Compliance

Legal compliance is a problem area within the Indian framework. The Competition Act, 2002, governs agreements that may have an appreciable adverse effect on competition. While Section 3(5) provides exceptions for intellectual property rights, it requires that such agreements meet “reasonable conditions” necessary for IPR protection.[17] However, there is not clear definition of “reasonable conditions” listed in the Act.

To address these challenges, the Competition Commission of India (CCI) must provide guidelines clarifying the regulatory parameters for patent pooling.[18] A government-regulated approach, similar to China’s subsidisation of Standard Essential Patent (SEP) pools, could mitigate concerns about monopolistic practice. Additionally, mechanisms for compliance and enforcement—such as mandatory audits, periodic reviews, and penalties for violations—are essential to maintain the integrity of the system.

Therefore, the government must ensure the legal compliance of such a framework by aligning patent pooling mechanisms with public interest objectives. In light of this, collaborative engagement between the CCI, industry stakeholders, and policymakers will be key in achieving equilibrium between innovation and competitive fairness.

Comparative Study:

To aid in policy formulations, this article examines the frameworks of Germany and China, two nations with distinct yet complementary approaches to patent pooling. Germany’s Mittelstand model demonstrates the power of supporting MSMEs through collaborative innovation, while China’s state-led approach showcases the efficacy of government intervention in patent standardisation. India, with its reliance on MSMEs and burgeoning manufacturing sector, is uniquely positioned to adopt the best of both models while addressing its distinct challenges.[19]

1. Germany: Mittelstand Model and MSME-Centric Innovation

Germany’s Mittelstand—its backbone of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)—serves as a testament to the economic potential of MSMEs when embedded in collaborative frameworks. The Mittelstand thrives on niche specialisation and is deeply integrated as innovation clusters that include academic institutions, research organizations, and large enterprises. These clusters facilitate patent pooling, particularly in sectors like automotive and clean energy, thereby ensuring smaller companies gain access to cutting-edge technology.[20]

For example, the SME Digital Program[21], launched by the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy, exemplifies this approach. By creating numerous “Mittelstand 4.0” centres of excellence, the program supports SMEs in digital transformation, intellectual property management, and collaboration with larger firms.[22] Patent pooling within these clusters not only reduces the costs of accessing essential technologies but also enables SMEs to contribute to and benefit from collective innovation.

Relatedly, India shares this SME-driven economic backbone, with MSMEs contributing over 30% to GDP and 50% of exports.[23] Much like Germany, Indian MSMEs often struggle to access critical technologies due to high costs or restrictive licensing practices. A government-facilitated patent pool could bridge this gap, ensuring MSMEs participate in and benefit from innovation.[24] For example, Tamil Nadu’s automotive cluster, which includes numerous MSMEs, could adopt a Mittelstand-like approach to foster collaboration and enhance technological capabilities in EV manufacturing.

Grey Areas and Challenges:

Unlike Germany, where SMEs operate in well-established clusters with strong government support, the Indian automotive ecosystem faces a degree of fragmentation. However, a policy driven approach to establish ‘excellence centres’ and enable collaborative efforts could significantly aid in overcoming these barriers.

2. China: State-Led Standardization and Patent Subsidization

China’s rise as a global innovation hub has been driven by its ability to integrate government-led initiatives with rapid industrial growth. The Pudong District’s Science and Technology Development Fund, for instance, subsidises the establishment of Standard Essential Patent (SEP) pools.[25] Enterprises leading in standard development and market-oriented operations receive financial support, ensuring widespread adoption of standardized technologies.[26] This approach has been pivotal in sectors like telecommunications and EVs, enabling China to scale innovation quickly.

China’s focus on patent pooling is further complemented by subsidies for patent creation and enforcement.[27] Companies meeting thresholds for patent filings (e.g., 30 domestic patents) or participating in international standard-setting processes are eligible for significant funding.[28] This ensures that both large corporations and SMEs have access to resources necessary for innovation.

India’s manufacturing sector, much like China’s, is poised to become a global hub, supported by its vast workforce and expanding industrial base.[29] However, India has an advantage: its potential to earn the trust of the global IP community. While China’s aggressive IP strategies[30] have often been criticized as unfair or opaque, India can leverage its reputation as a rule-abiding, democratic nation to position itself as a reliable partner in global patent ecosystems.

Grey Areas and Challenges:

A key aspect of India policymaking framework is that it lacks the centralized efficiency of China’s state-led initiatives. In light of this, individual State policies must act as addendums to the National EV policy[31], and consequently employ a concerted focus in targeted clusters. In this instance, Tamil Nadu, with its remarkable establishment of a fourth auto cluster could enable patent pooling as part of its EV push and facilitate collaboration.[32]

Way Forward:

In order to equitably harness the potential of patent pooling in India’s EV sector, a cohesive, pragmatic and forward-looking approach is crucial. Drawing inspiration from the aforementioned models, this section will aim to recommend a comprehensive framework that accelerates EV innovation whilst ensuring equitable access and competitiveness in the market.

1. Establishing Government-Regulated Patent Pools

The creation of government-regulated patent pools is a necessary first step. These pools would centralise access to essential EV technologies, ensuring affordability and interoperability while reducing litigation risks. Key components of include:

• Formation and Governance: The concerned government authority should facilitate the establishment of patent pools, focusing on technologies critical to EV infrastructure, such as battery management, charging stations, and wireless charging. Post which governance of these pools should be overseen by an independent body comprising representatives from government, industry stakeholders, and legal experts.
• Incentives for Participation: Following suit of TN’s EV Policy[33], the relevant authority must provide tax breaks[34] and direct subsidies to encourage companies to contribute patents to the pool. but with an expanded scope to include pooled patents. Another notable example is the tax exemptions offered by the Telangana government.[35] Furthermore, the option to apply for a fast-track approval for projects involving pooled technologies must be introduced, thereby reducing bureaucratic delays.

 

2. Strengthening Regional Innovation Clusters

Taking inspiration from Germany’s Mittelstand model, relevant authorities must prioritise the creation of regional innovation clusters tailored to the EV industry. Most importantly, bodies such as Germany’s ‘excellence centres’ are to be established to assuage collaborative complexities.

• Integration of MSMEs: Regional hubs, such as those in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Maharashtra, should facilitate collaboration of MSMEs with larger companies, research institutions, and universities. An ‘excellence centre’ within a particular cluster could aid greatly in such an effort. This would create a collaborative ecosystem where smaller players can access pooled technologies and contribute to innovation. Authorities could extend financial support programs specifically for MSMEs to participate in patent pools, including grants and low-interest loans for technology development and commercialisation.
• Skill Development and Capacity Building: Launch training programs modelled on Germany’s SME Digital Program, focusing on intellectual property management, digital transformation, and integration into patent pools. For example, these programs can be implemented through existing initiatives such as Skill India.

 

3. Ensuring Long-Term Sustainability

To ensure the sustainability of patent pools and their impact on the EV ecosystem, India must adopt a phased approach with measurable goals and stakeholder collaboration.

• Short-Term (1–3 Years): In the short term, relevant authorities could identify priority technologies for patent pooling, such as charging infrastructure and battery management. Next, establish the first patent pool with government facilitation and subsidies. This necessity for rethinking subsidisation is reflected by PMO advisors.[36] Further, create pilot regional innovation clusters in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka to integrate MSMEs.
• Medium-Term (3–5 Years): The medium term focus must turn towards curating an ecosystem which holistically enables the industry to flourish whilst addressing dire consumer needs. In light of this, the government needs to focus on expanding patent pools to include emerging technologies such as payment unification, autonomous driving and renewable energy integration. Digital infrastructure is crucial at this stage.[37] In order for this to be effective, sunset clauses are required in all newly implemented policies with established working groups.
• Long-Term (5–10 Years): In the long term, India should scale patent pools across all major EV technologies, ensuring nationwide interoperability. Namely, this broad umbrella would cover a multitude of technologies ranging from Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries, public EV charging network operators, bidirectional charging infrastructure, to unified payment mechanisms. Evidently, such a broad exercise would effectively transform regional clusters into global innovation hubs, attracting foreign investment and partnerships.

Conclusion:

India’s EV sector is at a pivotal crossroads. While it is equipped with immense potential to lead global innovation, it faces significant domestic challenges.[38] Being a pluralistic democracy with a diverse set of capabilities and complexities, adopting a hybrid approach that combines the likes of the collaborative strengths offered by Germany alongside the efficiency of China’s state-led initiatives, India can create a patent pooling framework that is not only innovative but also inclusive and globally credible.[39]

Patent pools are uniquely equipped to handle complex initiatives. Through strategic investments in MSMEs, alignment with global standards, and robust policy support, patent pools can accelerate India’s transition to EVs, fostering economic growth, environmental sustainability, and technological leadership. With meticulous implementation, India can emerge as a global hub for EV innovation, setting a precedent for other developing economies to follow.

 

Bibliography

Policy Documents and Government Sources

1. Government of Tamil Nadu (2023) Electric Vehicles Policy in 2023. Available at: https://www.newsonprojects.com/news/tamil-nadu-government-proposes-fourth-auto-cluster-in-thoothukudi-plans-two-additional-centers-for-ev-industry.
2. Invest India (2024) ‘MSMEs: Backbone of India’s Economic Future’. Available at: https://www.investindia.gov.in/team-india-blogs/msmes-backbone-indias-economic-future.
3. Ministry of Heavy Industries (2024) National-Level Policy on EVs, e-AMRIT. Available at: https://e-amrit.niti.gov.in/national-level-policy.
4. PIB (2024) Press Release on GST Recommendations for EV Batteries. Available at: https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1946375.
5. Telangana Government (2024) ‘Telangana’s EV Policy Offers Unmatched Tax Exemptions’. Times of India. Available at: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/telanganas-ev-policy-offers-unmatched-tax-exemptions-to-boost-electric-vehicle-sales/articleshow/115500164.cms.
6. WRI India, Ross Centre (2024) Kanuri, C., Rao, R. and Mulukutla, P., A Review of State Government Policies for Electric Mobility. Available at: https://cleanmobilityshift.com/policy-regulation/the-future-of-electric-vehicles-in-india-the-policy-roadmap/.

Academic Articles and Journals

1. Borkar, A. and Khotte, A. (2023) ‘Patent Management for Sustainable Development: Analysis of Electric Vehicle Patentability’, YMER, 22(5), ISSN: 0044-0477.
2. Kampoowale, Isha & Singh, Harcharanjit & Sakka, Ayu & Iwuchukwu, Ekene & Al-Shaikhli, Essra. (2023). The Role of Digitalization on Manufacturing SME Firm Performance in India. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences. 13. 10.6007/IJARBSS/v13-i9/18060.
3. Paust, S. (2014) ‘The German Mittelstand – a model for Asia’s emerging economies?’, Asia Pathways, 20 June. Available at: https://www.asiapathways-adbi.org/2014/06/the-german-mittelstand-a-model-for-asias-emerging-economies/.
4. Pfister, P., & Lehmann, C. (2023). Measuring the Success of Digital Transformation in German SMEs. Journal of Small Business Strategy, 33(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.53703/001c.39679
5. ‘Patent pool and dominant design: An empirical study of patent pools from MPEG-LA’ (2024) Journal of Engineering and Technology Management, 74. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jengtecman.2024.101847.
6. Rana, S.S. & Co. (2024) ‘Patents in the Automobile Industry’. SS Rana Blog. Available at: https://ssrana.in/ip-laws/patents/patents-automobile-industry/.

Blogs and Industry Insights

1. Arctic Invent (2024) Dashboard on India’s E-Vehicle Patent Filing Landscape. Available at: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/sme-sector/arctic-invent-reveals-its-dashboard-on-indias-e-vehicle-patent-filing-landscape/articleshow/105283270.cms.
2. Depenning, A. (2024) Leveraging Patent Pools for Collaboration and Innovation. Available at: https://depenning.com/blog/leveraging-patent-pools-for-collaboration-and-innovation/.
3. Intepat (2024) Re-tooling Patent Pools in India. Available at: https://www.intepat.com/blog/competitive-ramifications-and-re-tooling-patent-pools-in-india/.
4. Lumenci (2024) The Race to Charge EVs: Patents and the Future of Transportation. Available at: https://lumenci.com/blogs/the-race-to-charge-evs-patents-and-the-future-of-transportation/.
5. PatentPC (2024) The Role of Patent Pools in Accelerating Deep-Tech Development. Available at: https://patentpc.com/blog/the-role-of-patent-pools-in-accelerating-deep-tech-development.

News

1. China IP Law Update (2024) Shanghai Subsidies for Standard Essential Patent Pools. Available at: https://www.chinaiplawupdate.com/2024/04/shanghai-to-subsidize-construction-of-standard-essential-patent-pools/.
2. Schwegman Lundberg & Woessner (2024) ‘Shanghai to Subsidize Construction of Standard Essential Patent Pools’, SLW IP. Available at: https://www.slwip.com/resources/shanghai-to-subsidize-construction-of-standard-essential-patent-pools/.
3. Fortune India (2024) Need to Rethink GST on EV Batteries: PMO Adviser. Available at: https://www.fortuneindia.com/enterprise/need-to-relook-gst-on-ev-batteries-charging-pmo-adviser/119199.
4. Gotion, C. (2024) ‘India’s Amara Raja Licenses Chinese Lithium-Ion Cell Technology’. Reuters. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/indias-amara-raja-inks-licensing-deal-with-chinas-gotion-lithium-ion-cell-2024-06-24/.

Patent-Specific Resources

1. GlobalData (2024) India’s Top Patent Holders in Automotive Sector. Available at: https://www.globaldata.com/data-insights/automotive/india-top–patents-holders-in-the-automotive-sector-2133534/.
2. IEEE (2024) Technology Insights on EV Patents. Available at: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/10653132.
3. Sisvel (2024) Patent Pools in China: Getting the Details Right. Available at: https://www.sisvel.com/insights/patent-pools-in-china-getting-the-details-right/.
4. NewsOnProjects (2024) Tamil Nadu’s Fourth Auto Cluster Proposal. Available at: https://www.newsonprojects.com/news/tamil-nadu-government-proposes-fourth-auto-cluster-in-thoothukudi-plans-two-additional-centers-for-ev-industry.

Legal and Policy Analysis

1. Akanksha (2024) Patent Pooling and Competition Laws in India. IJALR. Available at: https://ijalr.in/volume-4-issue-1/the-investigation-of-india-patent-pooling-and-interaction-with-competition-laws-akanksha/.

[1] Arctic Invent (2024) Dashboard on India’s E-Vehicle Patent Filing Landscape. Available at: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/sme-sector/arctic-invent-reveals-its-dashboard-on-indias-e-vehicle-patent-filing-landscape/articleshow/105283270.cms.

[2] Borkar, A. and Khotte, A. (2023) ‘Patent Management for Sustainable Development: Analysis of Electric Vehicle Patentability’, YMER, 22(5), ISSN: 0044-0477.

[3] De Penning, A. (2024) Leveraging Patent Pools for Collaboration and Innovation. Available at: https://depenning.com/blog/leveraging-patent-pools-for-collaboration-and-innovation/.

[4] ‘Patent pool and dominant design: An empirical study of patent pools from MPEG-LA’ (2024) Journal of Engineering and Technology Management, 74. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jengtecman.2024.101847.

[5] Rana, S.S. & Co. (2024) ‘Patents in the Automobile Industry’. SS Rana Blog. Available at: https://ssrana.in/ip-laws/patents/patents-automobile-industry/.

[6] Depenning, ibid n.3.

[7] Ibid.

[8] Ibid.

[9] Rana, S.S. & Co, ibid n.5.

[10] Depenning, ibid n.3.

[11] PatentPC (2024) The Role of Patent Pools in Accelerating Deep-Tech Development. Available at: https://patentpc.com/blog/the-role-of-patent-pools-in-accelerating-deep-tech-development.

[12] Depenning, ibid n. 3.

[13] PatentPC, ibid n. 11.

[14] Ibid.

[15] NewsOnProjects (2024) Tamil Nadu’s Fourth Auto Cluster Proposal. Available at: https://www.newsonprojects.com/news/tamil-nadu-government-proposes-fourth-auto-cluster-in-thoothukudi-plans-two-additional-centers-for-ev-industry.

[16] Intepat (2024) Re-tooling Patent Pools in India. Available at: https://www.intepat.com/blog/competitive-ramifications-and-re-tooling-patent-pools-in-india/.

[17] Akanksha (2024) Patent Pooling and Competition Laws in India. IJALR. Available at: https://ijalr.in/volume-4-issue-1/the-investigation-of-india-patent-pooling-and-interaction-with-competition-laws-akanksha/.

[18] Ibid.

[19] Invest India (2024) ‘MSMEs: Backbone of India’s Economic Future’. Available at: https://www.investindia.gov.in/team-india-blogs/msmes-backbone-indias-economic-future.

[20] Pfister, P., & Lehmann, C. (2023). Measuring the Success of Digital Transformation in German SMEs. Journal of Small Business Strategy, 33(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.53703/001c.39679

[21] Pfister, Paul & Lehmann, Claudia. (2022). Digital value creation in German SMEs – a return-on-investment analysis. Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship. 36. 1-26. 10.1080/08276331.2022.2037065.

[22] Ibid.

[23] Invest India, n. 19.

[24] Paust, S. (2014) ‘The German Mittelstand – a model for Asia’s emerging economies?’, Asia Pathways, 20 June. Available at: https://www.asiapathways-adbi.org/2014/06/the-german-mittelstand-a-model-for-asias-emerging-economies/.

[25] Schwegman Lundberg & Woessner (2024) ‘Shanghai to Subsidize Construction of Standard Essential Patent Pools’, SLW IP. Available at: https://www.slwip.com/resources/shanghai-to-subsidize-construction-of-standard-essential-patent-pools/.

[26] China IP Law Update (2024) Shanghai Subsidies for Standard Essential Patent Pools. Available at: https://www.chinaiplawupdate.com/2024/04/shanghai-to-subsidize-construction-of-standard-essential-patent-pools/.

[27] Ibid.

[28] Ibid.

[29] GlobalData (2024) India’s Top Patent Holders in Automotive Sector. Available at: https://www.globaldata.com/data-insights/automotive/india-top–patents-holders-in-the-automotive-sector-2133534/.

[30] Sisvel (2024) Patent Pools in China: Getting the Details Right. Available at: https://www.sisvel.com/insights/patent-pools-in-china-getting-the-details-right/.

[31] Ministry of Heavy Industries (2024) National-Level Policy on EVs, e-AMRIT. Available at: https://e-amrit.niti.gov.in/national-level-policy.

[32] NewsOnProjects (2024) Tamil Nadu’s Fourth Auto Cluster Proposal. Available at: https://www.newsonprojects.com/news/tamil-nadu-government-proposes-fourth-auto-cluster-in-thoothukudi-plans-two-additional-centers-for-ev-industry.

[33] Government of Tamil Nadu (2023) Electric Vehicles Policy in 2023. Available at: https://www.newsonprojects.com/news/tamil-nadu-government-proposes-fourth-auto-cluster-in-thoothukudi-plans-two-additional-centers-for-ev-industry.

[34] PIB (2024) Press Release on GST Recommendations for EV Batteries. Available at: https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1946375.

[35] Telangana Government (2024) ‘Telangana’s EV Policy Offers Unmatched Tax Exemptions’. Times of India. Available at: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/telanganas-ev-policy-offers-unmatched-tax-exemptions-to-boost-electric-vehicle-sales/articleshow/115500164.cms.

 

[36] Fortune India (2024) Need to Rethink GST on EV Batteries: PMO Adviser. Available at: https://www.fortuneindia.com/enterprise/need-to-relook-gst-on-ev-batteries-charging-pmo-adviser/119199.

[37] IEEE (2024) Technology Insights on EV Patents. Available at: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/10653132.

[38] WRI India, Ross Centre (2024) Kanuri, C., Rao, R. and Mulukutla, P., A Review of State Government Policies for Electric Mobility. Available at: https://cleanmobilityshift.com/policy-regulation/the-future-of-electric-vehicles-in-india-the-policy-roadmap/.

[39] Ibid.